A report on the international workshop organized by the Chair Studies of Religions with focus on Islam at the Institute for Cultural Studies, University of the Bundeswehr Munich (Germany), 6-7 February 2025.
The workshop, initiated and organized by Robert Langer, Evelyn Reuter (both at the University of the Bundeswehr Munich) and Cem Kara (University of Hamburg), brought together 24 international participants from a wide range of disciplines – including the Studies of Religion, Alevi, Islamic and Jewish Theology, Anthropology, (Art) History, Regional Studies, Cultural Studies, International Law, and Urban and Regional Planning – to provide an interdisciplinary approach to the topic.
The primary aim of the event was to explore the management of lodges and shrines, particularly Sufi spaces, through an interdisciplinary lens. Together, we examined the transformation of management practices, the roles of relevant agents, and the impact of socio-cultural, historical, and political contexts on the administration of religious buildings. The workshop focused on key issues such as the economic and touristic significance of these sites, legal dimensions, and the influence of media, while addressing broader themes like the preservation of cultural heritage and religious freedom.
More precisely, the approach of religion and the economy was the theoretical frame for this enterprise. As a relatively new approach in the Study of Religion, this research perspective is still underexplored. However, to quickly provide some examples of the kind of premises it offers: religions are economic players; ethics are relevant economic factors that may shape the market; and, economic theories such as game theory can be highly relevant to understanding religious practice. Hence, religion and economics is a fruitful combination for studying the former. Of note: the rather dominant and highly-criticized rational choice theory was not the sole methodological underpinning of the conference, but only one theoretical approach among many.
Within the interplay of religion and economics, there remain many gaps of research. One of these is the role of religious sites, buildings, and complexes – which provided the starting point for the conference. We discussed the question of economic management in how religious buildings were maintained and managed. We reflected on the agency and role of such structures. Buildings may not be the first thing that comes to our minds when we speak about religious agents. Are they passive? Or do they have any agency? Religious buildings rather seem to be powerful mediums of the transcendent. Or to use more architectural terms: the materialized gate towards it. Furthermore, they are a meeting place for the members of a religion. A site where they retreat and practice rituals to come closer to the divine. However, they are also a trading hub: money, food, and other objects flow in and through these buildings. The givers may also aim at an exchange, expecting something for their efforts and donation. Religious services and products may be offered, for which visitors spend money. In an Islamic context, the buildings may be part of a waqf, a special form of endowment which involves the investing of money, and which may rent out donated land and the like. In short, such buildings are the loci of an abundant amount of economic activity.
Another economic dimension pertains to the eventual heritagization of religious buildings: as heritage sites, these structures attract tourists who may spend time and money visiting these places. In addition to travel and accommodation costs, they may pay for food, guided tours, entrance fees, souvenirs and so on. This forms a source of income for the managed complex, but also for the people living in the area.
In her the keynote speech, Maren Freudenberg (Ruhr University Bochum, Germany) surveyed the theoretical frame of the chosen approach by highlighting crucial studies. Among them, Makkay’s study on the “Temple-Economy” (1983); Stolz’ categories of individual and social religious goods of which only a few are available on the religious market (2006); or Iannaccone’s perspective on religious markets that – according to rational choice theory – aim to maximize benefits and reduce costs (1992). Through these, she pointed out that religions are comparable to companies producing and distributing various goods, also using marketing strategies to attract “consumers” and generate income.
“religions are comparable to companies producing and distributing various goods, also using marketing strategies to attract “consumers” and generate income.”
This keynote was followed by two panels of esteemed colleagues presenting case studies on Sufi lodges and shrines from all over the world. The first panel, chaired by Jakob Krais (University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany), focused on the role of important Sufi sites as hubs of individual and collective religiosity. Michel Boivin (CNRS-EHESS, Paris, France) discussed a Sufi Lodge in the Southern Indus Valley and the ongoing process to turn it into a place of education called Sufi University since 2011. The lodge is connected to Sehwan Sharif, a kind of ritual city, that bridges single dargahs and inter-related shrines.
Mark Sedgwick (Aarhus University, Denmark) looked at two modern Sufi sites in Southern Spain’s region of Andalucía, which offer expensive Islamic retreats and residential courses that attract well-educated Muslims from across Europe and North America. The main selling points are the historical connection with the so-called (neo-)“Traditional Islam” movement, the inspiring natural beauty of the area, and the symbolic value of Andalucía as the imagined site of a historic “convivencia” between Muslims, Christians, and Jews, understood as not just a culture of toleration but also as a creative synthesis.
The third case study, presented by Johara Berrianne (University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany), focused on the Tidjani shrine in Fez, Morocco, that developed from a West African pilgrimage site to a pilgrimage hub frequented by transnational actors. This example illustrates the connections between pilgrimage, the instrumentation of the shrine by the state, its commodification, trade, migration, tourism, and mobility for the shaping of this Sufi lodge.
In his response, Erhan Kurtarır (Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi/Turkey) shared his perspective as an urban and regional planner, with a specific focus on being present in public spaces as a human right issue. He raised the question of why a place was chosen either in a rural or an urban area and how this decision affected the development of these sites in terms of sustainability, special social meaning, and strategical planning. Considering the funding that backed these different projects, he referred to the system as a “cultural industry” and raised the ethical question of how spirituality and authenticity are affected if a place is funded through mass tourism.
The second panel moderated by Alexandra Bettag (University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany) explored the transformation of Sufi sites from religious places of worship to cultural monuments. Michiel Leezenberg (University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands) analyzed political support for the Naqshbandi and Qadiri tariqas in post-Baathist Iraqi Kurdistan. Despite the “law for the protection of religious minorities” from 2015, the preservation of Sufi lodges still remains dependent on regional political patronage.
In his presentation, Brett Wilson (Central European University, Vienna, Austria) showcased how the Turkish state has transformed some Sufi complexes and structures into museums as institutions of national culture after Sufi orders were banned under Atatürk’s government in the 1920s. Newly-founded museums reflect a political and historical turn toward Islamic heritage in general and Sufi lodges in particular to reframe the Ottoman past and re-imagine organized Sufism.
In the final presentation, Pascale Bugnon (University of Geneva, Switzerland) explored the relatively new transformations of religious sites into cultural heritage by comparing the Suleiman-Too Mausoleum in Osh, Kyrgyzstan, and the Said ibn Abi Waqqas Tomb in Guangzhou, China. Disclosing state-led strategies at both sites, either with the aim to reinforce ethnic identity or to demonstrate the peaceful coexistence of different religions and the successful integration of Islam, she outlined challenges in heritage management, such as funding the preservation as well as negotiating local and national identities.
“He also challenged the economic approach by drawing attention to the terminology of cultural property, which has been abandoned in favor of cultural heritage because culture is not something to be owned or appropriated economically.”
In his response, Sebastian Ambros (University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany) highlighted the complex and problematic links between religious, cultural, political, and legal elements. He also challenged the economic approach by drawing attention to the terminology of cultural property, which has been abandoned in favor of cultural heritage because culture is not something to be owned or appropriated economically. However, even the idea of cultural heritage and corresponding protection laws is problematic because it leads to the phenomenon of “over-tourism” characterized by neoliberal consumption patterns. It also superficially implies an understanding between people of different backgrounds, ignoring that there may be different groups fighting over the existence and use of the protected sites. Furthermore, these laws are state tools to control the grown and lived culture of a society.
A highlight of this exploratory workshop has been its more interactive portions: in five parallel break-out sessions, the participants engaged with the innovative approach of the economy of religion. Each of the five groups was connected to one aspect considered relevant: Agents, Funding, Places, Context, and Symbolism. The aim was to collaboratively systematize the knowledge gained from the presentations and to derive generally valid insights for the management of Sufi places.
As a springboard for this session, each group started with a short synoptical impulse from an expert, and the results were presented on the second day.
For the impulse on “agents”, Mark Soileau (University of Hamburg, Germany) focused on local, national, and international Sufi or non-Sufi key figures responsible for managing these sites, and their motivations, skills, knowledge, and characteristics that legitimize them in their roles. Ester Spät (Central European University, Vienna, Austria) summarized that the term “agent” should be understood in terms of action and influence, rather than being defined exclusively by status. This includes not only the members of the Sufi order’s hierarchy, such as a shaikh, dervishes, and murids, but also governmental actors. Furthermore, the category “agents” encompasses visitors and pilgrims, who, contrary to being passive consumers, actively influence ritual and management through their expectations. State involvement is nearly universal but manifests in various forms. Furthermore, the advent of transnational networks and heritage institutions has given rise to novel dynamics within established spaces.
Alexandre Papas (Center for Ottoman Studies at the College de France/France) provided an impulse on “funding,” giving an overview of how buildings and their managers financed endowments and donations for establishing, maintaining, and preserving these sites, as well as their on-site offered services and products, and their marketing strategies. Rıfat Ertok (University of Koblenz, Germany) noted that each place begins with an investment which may be either a deliberate or impromptu endowment. As a place’s significance rises, its revenue sources expand, encompassing donations, tax exemptions, revenues from services and goods offered, pilgrimages, and volunteering. While the funding of these sites may not have been purposeful, meaningful places tend to be marketed for more profit. However, in the 20th century, practices of expropriation led to the termination of certain financing strategies. The expropriation can result in two possible scenarios: either the revitalization of a place through a new endowment, or the touristification of the place which will then be funded through entrance fees, cultural foundations, and so on. The most interesting finding relates to transparency: while the absence of clear information is notable, it is evident that manifestations of wealth, blessing, and power are present at the sites.
“The most interesting finding relates to transparency: while the absence of clear information is notable, it is evident that manifestations of wealth, blessing, and power are present at the sites.”
In her impulse, Ethel Sara Wolper (University of New Hampshire/USA) considered different types of Sufi “places” with distinct characteristics and functions, how they are managed, and how the location and infrastructure impact the management. Benedikt Römer (University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany) summed up that the term “place” is a broad category, with no clear-cut definition. Nevertheless, emic terminology is not necessarily conducive to the creation of typologies. Factors that may inform typologies include the geographic setting (urban vs. rural), physical scale (small place vs. larger complex), ownership structure (privately-run, waqf or state-owned), accessibility (public or private), and control and authority (contested or controlled). These aspects are connected with the functions of the places, such as teaching and training, charity, rituals, and commemoration of deceased individuals, among others. The infrastructure and technology encompass webpages, online services, and social media. Additional concerns relate to accessibility, counterterrorism security measures in hostile environments, and sustainability.
Providing the impulse for context, Jesko Schmoller (Humboldt University Berlin, Germany) recapitulated the cultural and political context, including regulations and guidelines for the use of religious sites that affect their administration, the impact of restrictions on religious freedom, and factors that foster and hinder the (re-)construction of these buildings. In addition, he considered various social constellations, protection measures, and modern means of communication and social media that affect their management. Condensing the main findings, Benjamin Weineck (University of Heidelberg) underscored the dominant role that states play in determining the balance between secular governance and the favoring of a particular religion as a state religion. Heritage and other policies always serve a purpose, such as to ensure security and to domesticate diversity, as well as to attract tourists. Groups involved in managing these sites align themselves with the established regulations through either subscription or rejection. The negotiation process influences how groups perceive themselves. The group’s discussion further delved into the neoliberal perspective, encompassing the neoliberal focus on individual enhancement, the commodification of goods and services, and the interpretation of state interventions as either destructive or empowering.
Sara Kuehn (University of Vienna/Austria) summarized the symbolic aspects of Sufi buildings, the challenge of relocation and/or theft of movable artifacts due to their symbolic and material worth, and marketing strategies providing insights into the cultural and religious significance of these places and their external presentation. Together with Janina Karolewski (University of Hamburg, Germany) she discussed the structures of such complexes, which encompass a tomb at the center, a lodge, and other buildings. These complexes also involve the symbolic arrangement of various objects, including calligraphy, scripts, books on the Sufi “saint” and his miraculous power, as well as non-material texts. However, even nature can be included in the analysis of the inherent symbolism. Moreover, the symbolism of a place is accompanied by sensorial experiences and communication practices. These elements can be instrumentalized for the attainment of inner knowledge and experiences, popular culture, and the pursuit of tourism. Consequently, the symbolism is not confined to the complex itself but rather expands beyond its boundaries.
In the final discussion, participants teased out connections between the working groups through engaging discussions on the intersection of religion and the economy. The event demonstrated the rich benefits of a multifaceted study of the management of religious sites, particularly those of Sufi orders and their affiliated religious sites, as well as their effectiveness as economic and cultural resources.
References
Iannaccone, L.R. (1992). ‘Religious markets and the economics of religion’, Social Compass, 39(1), pp. 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/003776892039001012.
Makkay, J. (1983). ‘The Origins of the “Temple-Economy” as Seen in the Light of Prehistoric Evidence’. Iraq 45 (1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.2307/4200170.
Stolz, J. (2006). ‘Salvation goods and religious markets: Integrating rational choice and Weberian perspectives’, Social Compass, 53(1), pp. 13–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768606061575.
Evelyn Reuter is currently a Research Fellow in the Studies of Religion at the University of the Bundeswehr in Munich (Germany), and a co-leader in the European interdisciplinary research network “COST Action – Connecting Theory and Practical Issues of Migration and Religious Diversity”. She is the author of the monograph Die Mehrdeutigkeit geteilter religiöser Orte (2021), examining the ambiguous facets of an Orthodox monastery in Macedonia frequented by Christians, (Sufi) Muslims, tourists, traders, and other visitors. She is also a co-editor of the forthcoming volume Sufism in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Europe: Entanglements in Past and Present (Routledge Sufi Series, 2025).